Abstract:
Mass transfer processes across and within the capillary fringe affect the transport behavior of volatile compounds and, thus, the natural attenuation of contaminants present in this region. We studied the mass transfer of oxygen in the fluctuating capillary fringe since oxygen is the most relevant electron acceptor for many biogeochemical processes. Cyclic fluctuations in water table elevation are important in the supply of oxygen to oxygen-depleted groundwater and, thus, can significantly affect the groundwater geochemistry, but also the effective hydraulic properties of the porous medium due to gas entrapment. We performed a series of quasi two-dimensional flow-through experiments at the laboratory bench-scale (i) to directly compare oxygen transfer across the capillary fringe with mass transport within the saturated zone at steady state; (ii) to gain an improved understanding of the processes governing oxygen transfer in a fluctuating capillary fringe; (iii) to study the influence of different flow conditions and porous medium properties on oxygen transfer in the capillary fringe following an imbibition event; and (iv) to investigate the effect of a coarse-material inclusion, present in the vicinity of the water table, on flow and oxygen transfer. High-resolution vertical profiles of oxygen concentration were measured at distinct positions along the horizontal groundwater flow direction, applying a non-invasive technique that is based on optode technology. The effectiveness of oxygen transfer under varying experimental conditions was evaluated by additional mass flux measurements in the effluent of the flow-through chamber. Modeling of flow and transport was performed for selected experiments to fully understand the processes involved. Under steady-state conditions, we found that transverse vertical dispersion in the water-saturated part of the capillary fringe is the process limiting oxygen transfer. Gas partitioning between the aqueous and gaseous phases plays a significant role in the medium-term supply of oxygen to oxygen-depleted groundwater following an imbibition event. In case of a fast decreasing water table, the effect of specific yield has to be considered. We also observed that the characteristic of the water table fluctuations determines a specific system’s dynamic response and, therefore, the amount of oxygen that is transferred to the aqueous phase. Furthermore, the magnitude of the water table fluctuation and the grain size of the porous medium are particularly relevant for effective oxygen supply from entrapped gas to oxygen-depleted groundwater. In the presence of a coarse-material inclusion, steady-state oxygen flux across the unsaturated/saturated interface may be considerably enhanced. In case of increasing water levels, we hypothesize that the amount of oxygen supplied to the groundwater depends on the spatial distribution, the geometry, and the hydraulic properties of the coarse-material inclusion(s).