Abstract:
In order to elucidate the mechanisms of plant signal transduction pathways, it is essential to analyze in detail the molecular function of the different signalling components and to determine whether aspects such as their subcellular localization or phosphorylation state play an important role in regulating their function.
Here, the subcellular localization of the cytokinin receptors AHK3 and AHK4 was analyzed. They are representatives of the histidine kinase family of the two-component system (TCS) which is an important signalling mechanism in Arabidopsis, based on a histidine to aspartate phosphorelay. Until now, it has been assumed that the cytokinin receptors reside at the plasma membrane (Kim et al. 2006). However, we showed that GFP- and RFP-fusions of AHK3 and AHK4, respectively, are localized at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of transiently transformed tobacco epidermal leaf cells and Arabidopsis cotyledon cells. Furthermore, the N- and C-terminal GFP fusions of AHK3 represent functional cytokinin receptors since they complement the cytokinin insensitive phenotype of the ahk2ahk3 double mutant. The observed ER-localization of AHK3-GFP in transiently transformed leaves could be confirmed in these Arabidopsis lines. The sensitivity of AHK3-GFP and GFP-AHK3 to the endoglycosidase H substantiates their ER localization and leads to the assumption that the cytokinin-binding CHASE domain of AHK3 is exposed to the ER lumen. Apparently, the current model of cytokinin signal perception at the plasma membrane needs to be reconsidered.
Apart from the cytokinin receptors, the subcellular localization of the A-type response regulators (ARRs), representing output elements of the TCS, was examined. Although they do not have an obvious nuclear localization signal (NLS), they are mainly localized in the nucleus (Grefen & Harter 2004). It could be shown by single amino acid exchanges (lysine to alanine) that ARR3, 4, 7 and 15, which are representatives of the A-type ARRs, have short sequence motifs, whose mutation led to a mainly cytoplasmic localization of the corresponding GFP-fusions and, therefore serve as NLSs. Interestingly, the determined NLS positions are not conserved even between phylogenetically tightly related A-type ARRs and are located in the C-terminus of the proteins. Therefore, it can be assumed that this less examined C-terminal part of the A-type ARRs is relevant for their subcellular distribution, in contrast to the receiver domain which confers signalling.
Furthermore, AHK5, the least characterized histidine kinase of the TCS, was analyzed regarding its functional relevance in the stomatal closure response. Until now, AHK5 has only been identified as a negative regulator of ABA- and ethylene-induced root growth inhibition (Iwama et al. 2007). Here, it could be shown that stomatal closure, mediated by H2O2, which is produced in response to exogenous or endogenous stimuli, depends on AHK5. Stomata of different ahk5 mutants did neither respond to exogenously applied H2O2 nor to factors like darkness, NO or ethylene that are known to enhance the endogenous H2O2 production. By protein-protein interaction studies of AHK5 with downstream elements of the TCS – phosphotransfer proteins (AHPs) and ARRs – it was possible to identify further compo¬nents of the pathway, namely AHP1, AHP2 and ARR4. Using different ahp mutants as well as an arr4 mutant, it could be confirmed that AHP1, AHP2 and ARR4 are crucial for stomatal closure in response to different stimuli. Furthermore, it could be shown that the stomatal closure in response to H2O2 is depending on the phosphorylation state of ARR4. The complexity of this pathway leads to the conclusion that fine-tuning of the stomatal movement has a high impact on the plant’s response to environmental stimuli.
Independently of the TCS, other phytohormones like brassinosteroids (BR) are also perceived by mem¬brane bound receptors, namely BRI1 in the case of BR. Here, a fast BR-induced and BRI1-depending process in the plasma membrane (PM) of Arabidopsis could be described. BR leads to the hyperpolarisation of the PM accompanied by a cell wall expansion. This was shown by recording the fluorescence lifetime of BRI1-GFP which responds to changes in the physico-chemical environment of fluorescent proteins. The observed processes depend on the activity of the PM-bound H+-ATPase (P-ATPase), which is in this case not regulated by the phosphorylation of a conserved threonine residue (T948) in its C-terminal auto¬inhibitory domain. The BR-induced hyperpolarisation of the PM and the cell wall expansion are therefore early events in the BR-regulated cell elongation that are described for the first time in planta with high spatio-temporal resolution.