Abstract:
(1) Carbon solubility in upper mantle minerals
The solubility of carbon in forsterite, enstatite, diopside, pyrope and MgAl2O4 spinel has been quantified. Previously reported problems of contamination and slow diffusion of carbon in minerals have been overcome by (1) growing carbon-saturated crystals from carbonatite melts in piston-cylinder (T=900-1100 °C; P=1.5 GPa) and multianvil (T=900-1400 °C; P=6-11 GPa) experiments in the presence of ~1 wt.% water and by (2) using starting materials, isotopically enriched to contain ~99 wt.% of 13C. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) was employed to measure the carbon contents of the synthesized minerals.
Carbon solubility in silicates at uppermost mantle conditions is exceedingly low, in the order of a few hundred parts per billion by weight. Solubility increases exponentially as a function of pressure to a maximum of ~12 ppm by weight in forsterite at 11 GPa and 1200 °C. No clear dependence of carbon solubility on temperature, oxygen fugacity and iron content was observed. Carbon solubility in MgAl2O4 spinel is below the limit of detection of the analytical technique used (i.e., below 30 ppb by weight).
(2) Carbon solubility in minerals of the transition zone and lower mantle
A similar technique was used to obtain the first experimental data on carbon solubility in wadsleyite, ringwoodite, MgSiO3-ilmenite and MgSiO3-perovskite. Experiments were performed in a multianvil press (T=1200-1400 °C; P=16-26 GPa). All high-pressure minerals show no excess of the 13C isotope relatively to the natural ratio of 13C/12C. The maximum carbon solubility in wadsleyite, ringwoodite, MgSiO3-ilmenite and MgSiO3-perovskite is therefore below the limit of detection of 40-110 ppb by weight.
(3) Carbon speciation in mantle silicates
The observation that carbon solubility in olivine is insensitive to oxygen fugacity implies that the oxidation state of carbon in the carbonatite melt and in olivine is the same, i.e. carbon dissolves as C4+ in olivine. The differences in carbon solubilities between the various minerals studied appear to correlate with the polyhedral volume of the Si4+ site, consistent with a direct substitution of C4+ for Si4+. The larger size of the Si4+ site in minerals of the transition zone and lower mantle and the absence of appropriate polyhedra in MgAl2O4 spinel prohibit the incorporation of carbon.
(4) Geological implications
The exceedingly low solubility of carbon in major nominally volatile-free mantle minerals implies that the carbon budget of the bulk mantle is dominated by minor carbon-rich phases (e.g. carbonates, diamonds). This is consistent with the possibility of massive carbon enrichment in the shallow mantle. Such carbon-rich reservoirs could be tapped during large volcanic eruptions which may trigger mass extinctions in the biosphere.