Abstract:
Malaria is caused by intracellular protozoan of the genus Plasmodium. The parasite is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito and within the human host it develops first in liver cells and then in erythrocytes. Parasitized human erythrocytes (RBCs) acquire new membrane permeabilities (New Permeability Pathways; NPPs) to meet the needs in nutrients and disposal of waste products of the intensively growing parasite. In vitro pharmacological inhibition of the NPPs results in parasite death. Therefore, the NPPs are potential targets for antimalarial drugs. In addition, the NPPs serve for entry routes of other drugs into the RBC thus delivering the drugs to the intraerythrocytic parasite. Moreover, a fraction of the NPPs has recently been shown to be activated in non-infected RBCs during aging and to trigger programmed cell death.
Functionally, the NPPs are organic osmolyte and anion channels with additional low but significant cation permeability. Therefore, suspending parasitized RBCs in isosmotic sorbitol solution leads to sorbitol entry, colloidosmotic swelling and eventually hemolysis. The rate of hemolysis in isosmotic sorbitol solution reflects the activity of the NPPs. Non-infected RBCs, in contrast, are not sorbitol permeable and stay intact when bathed in isosmotic sorbitol solution. NPPs and sorbitol hemolysis can also be induced in non-infected RBCs by oxidative stress. Upon oxidation and during infection the NPPs develop slowly suggesting complex signaling and reorganization of the oxidized/parasitized RBCs
This study investigates the role of ATP and purinoceptors in the induction of the NPPs upon oxidation or during Plasmodium infection by the use of hemolysis experiments, ATP luminescence assay, FACS analysis, patch-clamp whole-cell recordings, parasite in vitro growth assays and in vivo malaria infection of mice.
As a result, both, oxidation and Plasmodium infection, induce ATP release from the RBCs into the medium. Extracellular ATP and further purinoceptor agonists increase and antagonists (e.g. MRS2179, P2Y1 receptors specific antagonist) as well as extracellular ATP degradation by apyrase decrease the induction of the sorbitol hemolysis in oxidized or parasitized RBCs. These data suggest the involvement of P2Y1 and further metabotropic purinoceptors in the induction of the NPPs. Accordingly, human RBCs express P2Y1 protein and P2Y1-deficient mouse erythrocytes exhibit a decreased P. berghei infection- or oxidation-induced sorbitol hemolysis as compared to their wildtype litter-mates.
Moreover, the non-specific purinoceptor antagonist suramin decreases in vitro the intraerythrocytic parasite amplification and DNA/RNA synthesis of P. falciparum as well as the induction of the NPPs in the membrane of the parasitized RBC. Furthermore, P. berghei-infected P2Y1-deficient mice exhibit lower parasitemia and higher survival rates as compared to their wildtype litter mates.
Finally, this study focuses on the possible role of the NPPs for the programmed death of human RBCs. Aged RBCs express features characteristic for apoptosis in nucleated cells such as cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing and breakdown of the phosphatidylserine asymmetry of the plasma membrane. Programmed RBC death is triggered by the increased activity of a non-selective Ca2+-permeable cation channel which - as an identified fraction of the NPPs - is also activated in Plasmodium-infected RBCs. Accordingly, the present study demonstrates that Plasmodium infection induces breakdown of the phosphatidylserine asymmetry of the parasitized RBCs, a process mimicked in non-infected cells by increased cytosolic free Ca2+ concentrations.
In conclusion, this study shows that the induction of the NPPs in Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes involves ATP release and purinoceptors signaling. It also demonstrates for the first time the protein expression of P2Y1 receptors by human erythrocytes. Since chemical oxidation mimics the processes leading to the NPPs formation during Plasmodium infection, oxidative processes are probably involved in the signaling between the intraerythrocytic parasite and the RBC membrane. The inhibitory effect of purinoceptor antagonist and P2Y1 deficiency on parasite development in vitro and in vivo, respectively, strongly suggests functional significance of the purinoceptor signaling for the malaria infection in human beings.