Abstract:
Many organisms possess xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes which, by chemical modification and transportation, are able to detoxify and eliminate drugs, xenobiotics and other potentially harmful compounds of exogenous or endogenous origin. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP) are an important part of this biotransformation system. Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is the most abundant CYP isoform in human liver and is involved in the metabolism of more than 50% of all drugs currently in therapeutic use. Gene expression and enzymatic activity of CYP3A4 are of considerable interindividual variability, which is assumed to be caused by induction of gene expression and genetic polymorphisms. The induction of CYP3A4 and several other important drug metabolizing enzymes and transporters by distinct compounds is mediated by the pregnane x receptor (PXR) which is a member of the family of nuclear receptors. These ligand-activated transcription factors regulate and modulate their target genes´ transcription through interaction with regulatory DNA sequences, other nuclear receptors, transcription factors, and coactivators and corepressors. Although PXR plays a central role as a regulator of several xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and transporters, and although there were indications for an involvement of the hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha (HNF4alpha), the glucocorticoid receptor, and PXR itself, the regulation of PXR expression itself was not well understood.
In this dissertation, the expression of CYP3A4 and PXR in human liver and intestinal tissue and the relationship between these two parameters was examined. Furthermore, the impact of individual PXR expression levels on the inducibility of intestinal CYP3A4 and p-glycoprotein by the PXR agonist rifampicin was examined. Finally, the 5´ flanking region of the human PXR gene was characterized in order to identify cis-acting elements and trans-acting factors involved in the regulation of PXR transcription.
Expression analysis of CYP3A4 in a tissue bank of human liver samples of 94 individuals confirmed the well-known interindividual variability of CYP3A4 expression on the protein and mRNA level. Furthermore, a sex-dependent dimorphism of CYP3A4 expression was observed. In liver samples obtained from women, the average CYP3A4 protein and mRNA expression was significantly higher than in those obtained from men. The expression of PXR was considerably variable as well, varying more than 17-fold in liver, and was correlated with CYP3A4 mRNA expression in liver as well as in intestinal tissue. Analysis of intestinal inducibility of CYP3A4 and MDR1 mRNA by rifampicin using duodenal biopsies showed that CYP3A4 and MDR1 mRNA are co-induced, but the individual PXR expression was found to be no determining factor for the extent of induction.
In order to characterize the 5´ flanking region of the human PXR gene, the transcriptional start site was identified first. It was found that the major transcriptional start sites in human liver and intestinal tissue are slightly different. Subsequently, a library of reporter gene constructs with unidirectional deletions of the PXR promoter region ranging from –2543 to +195 relative to the transcriptional start site in human liver tissue was generated. Performing transient transfection experiments with this library and site-directed mutagenesis of the 5´ flanking region, a DR1 type nuclear receptor response element (RE) was identified, which was essential for or had considerable impact on promoter activity in LS174T and HepG2 cells. The RE bound HNF4alpha specifically, mediated responsivity towards exogenous HNF4alpha1 to the PXR promoter and was able to confer responsivity towards HNF4alpha1 to a heterologous promoter. The nuclear receptors COUP-TFI and COUP-TFII, which are known to exert mostly inhibitory functions and are able to act as functional antagonists of HNF4alpha, were shown to inhibit PXR promotor activity dependent on the integrity of the functional HNF4alpha-RE, but without binding directly to the RE, suggesting a trans-repression mode. No indications were found for an involvement of the glucocorticoid receptor or PXR itself in the transcriptional regulation of PXR.
The observed sex-dependent dimorphism of CYP3A4 expression could provide an explanation for previously reported sex-dependent differences in the metabolism of certain drugs and should be taken into consideration in the development and evaluation of drugs which are substrates of CYP3A4. The characterization of the promoter region of the nuclear receptor PXR and the identification of factors involved in its transcriptional regulation lead to a better understanding of the complex regulatory network and signal transduction pathways of the biotransformation system. Using the promoter reporter gene construct library of the 5´ flanking region of the human PXR gene, it should be possible to further clarify the regulation of PXR transcription.