Abstract:
It was the aim of this study to obtain a better understanding of the chemical changes that occur during the fossilisation of bone and their effects on the in vivo incorporated elemental and isotopic composition. To decipher the diagenetic processes and their influence on structural and chemical compositions of biogenic phosphatic skeletal remains from different terrestrial, fluviatile and marine diagenetic settings have been investigated mineralogically and geochemically. The multitude of diagenetic processes were investigated using a combined study of bone histology, apatite crystallinity, major, trace, and rare earth elements (REE) as well as the isotopic composition of C, N, O, S, Sr, and Nd. In situ microanalysis of the element distribution in fossil bones and teeth were undertaken to study the spatial and temporal changes imposed by the diagenetic alteration.
The diagenesis of bone is a complex, multistage process, strongly dependent on external (micro)biological, physicochemical, hydrologic and taphonomic conditions of the diagenetic setting as well as the internal structural and chemical parameters such as bone size, histology and collagen content. The geological age is of minor importance, as most of the changes in chemical composition take place during early diagenesis, which has the dominant influence on the preservation of the bone itself and its chemical composition. Fossil bones from different diagenetic settings and even those within one locality can differ in their chemical composition according to the variable conditions in that setting. In general, tooth enamel is the material of choice for palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions based on geochemical investigations of skeletal remains. The reason for this is related to the stability of tooth enamel to structural and chemical changes during diagenesis relative to that of bone.
Decay of the organic collagen matrix has a fundamental influence on the ion and isotope exchange processes between the phosphatic mineral phase of skeletal remains and the ambient fluid and sediment. Depending on temperature, taphonomy and physicochemical conditions of the diagenetic setting, collagen decays within a few 10<sup>2</sup> to 10<sup>5</sup> years. Due to the loss of collagen and the diagenetic recrystallisation of the microcrystalline bone apatite to carbonate-fluorapatite, an intensive chemical exchange with the environment takes place. Owing to their different degrees of diagenetic alteration, Quaternary bones often have lateral gradients of collagen content and chemical composition. In pre-Quaternary bones, most of these intra-bone differences in chemical composition disappear due to complete diagenetic recrystallisation.
The elemental and isotopic compositions of different crystal lattice positions in biogenic apatite are influenced to varying degrees by the diagenetic alteration. A number of elements may become enriched in the diagenetically altered biogenic phosphate through an exchange with the surrounding sediment or fluid. F, Fe, U, and REE are particularly sensitive tracers of diagenesis as they can be enriched by several orders of magnitude in fossil bones. The different behaviour of elements during diagenesis and the changes in isotope ratios of some of these elements can characterize different diagenetic stages and the diagenetic setting.
Because of the extremely low REE-contents in recent bones (380±180 ppb) and strong early diagenetic REE-enrichment in fossil bones, low biogenic REE-contents is not preserved. The REE-patterns and the Nd-isotopic compositions reflect those of the diagenetic fluid and can thus be used as taphonomic tracers that allow for the identification of reworked fossil assemblages or, in aquatic settings, can reflect the REE compostition of the palaeo-water mass.
However, different elements react differently to diagenetic changes. Diagenetic REE enrichment and changes in trace element concentration, for example, need not necessarily imply that the primary oxygen isotope composition of the phosphate has also been altered. Primary δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>p</sub>-values can be preserved in fossil bones over millions of years or, under extreme conditions, a diagenetic alteration within a few tousand years may be possible. In Tertiary sea cow ribs, primary δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>p</sub>-values seem to be preserved, which allow for the calculation of palaeo sea water δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>H2O</sub>-values. This can be done with the δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>p</sub>-δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>H2O</sub>-calibration curve for modern sea cows established, in part, with measurements made during this study. In compact bone of a Jurassic dinosaur cyclic intra-bone variations of the δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>p</sub>- and δ<sup>18</sup>O<sub>CO3</sub>-values are preserved, generally correlating with histologic growth marks, indicating that the variation may well be primary in nature. The oxygen isotope composition combined with bone histology may, therefore, yield potential information on growth rate of dinosaurs in relation to the palaeoclimatic conditions.