Abstract:
Extracorporeal circulation (ECC) can temporarily replace the function of the heart and the lungs. In this process, blood is taken from the venous vessels and is decarboxylated and oxygenated via an oxygenator. The blood is then returned to the patient's cardiovascular system. The heart-lung machine (HLM) and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) belong to the ECC. With a heart-lung machine (HLM), a complete bypass of the pulmonary and cardiovascular system is possible. Through a cannula, blood in the superior and inferior vena cava or in the right atrium is passively or actively directed into a venous reservoir. Blood can be retained in the venous reservoir so that blood volume can be precisely controlled. From there, the blood is also pumped by a roller pump through an oxygenator and heat exchanger before returning through a bubble filter to the patient's arterial circulation (e.g. the aorta). In the presence of a functional heart or an arrested heart, HLM can provide gas exchange and tempered systemic blood flow with defined perfusion pressure. A further development of the HLM is the ECMO. It enables temporary support of intensive care patients with lung failure, cardiovascular failure or combined heart-lung failure. In this procedure, large vessels of the body are cannulated and based on the indication, patients are treated using various venous and arterial connection options (see Introduction for more details). The blood passes through a centrifugal pump and an oxygenator and then the oxygenated blood returns to the patient.
Shear forces are generated as the blood passes through the pump, oxygenator and dialyser. Additionally, the blood flows through the tubes which represent a large foreign surface. Furthermore, complications such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) may occur during ECC. The reason for this activation is the interaction of different blood activation pathways such as mechanical and chemical cell activation, dysfunction of immune regulation, and activation of the coagulation cascade. Here, the foreign surfaces of the membrane and tubing during ECC and the shear forces that occur in the tubing and pumps can induce activation of haemostasis, which can lead to life-threatening clot activation. Therefore, continuous monitoring of haemostasis is of particular importance, otherwise bleeding complications or thromboembolism may occur.
Currently, the modern intensive care does not provide a comprehensive point-of care solution for monitoring coagulation status or coagulation problems. Reliable monitoring of overall haemostasis (coagulation, fibrinolysis, platelet function) with a single measurement device is only provided by viscoelastic methods such as ROTEM and thromboelastography (TEG). However, both devices are too expensive, too large, sensitive to vibration, and cannot be operated next to the patient. In addition, the results can only be interpreted by an expert. The use of a small, simple point-of-care device with minimal training requirements for treating physicians is desirable. Such a system is desirable due to the limited space in the operating room and intensive care unit. Therefore, a measurement method is needed that on the one hand covers the different aspects of haemostasis and on the other hand that can be performed without sample preparation by using a patient-side single measurement device with minimal effort of training for the analyst. We intend to address the point-of-care issue by rheometry, which can provide important information about the microstructure and dynamics of complex fluids such as polymer solutions and suspensions of colloid particles. Similar to those technical solutions, human whole blood is a complex suspension of various cell types and proteins that is subject to continuous variations. Monitoring the changes in viscoelastic properties of blood clotting provides a real-time indicator of the blood coagulation status of a patient. The conversion of fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin through the enzyme thrombin is an important part of the coagulation process. Following the coagulation cascade, fibrin is cross-linked with aggregated platelets leading to a platelet-fibrin mesh. This increases the viscoelastic shear viscosity of coagulated blood.
The first step in this work was to compare the performance of a piezo based research measuring system (piezoelectric axial vibrator, PAV) with a commercially available rheological oscillation rheometer (Kinexus Pro, Malvern). Usually, the piezo system is used for technical fluids, e.g. polymer solutions. For this reason, the device was initially calibrated with technical oils, which investigated the reproducibility of the measurements and the limitations of the piezo system. In addition, comparative measurements were performed between PAV and Kinexus Pro with various xanthan concentrations (0.1 - 5%). The data showed that the piezo system measures reliably and provides comparable results with the Kinexus Pro due to overlapping measuring ranges for different xanthan concentrations. Thus, the findings of the rheology of technical fluids can be transferred to blood. The clotting time (CT) can be obtained by measuring changes of viscoelastic properties of human whole blood, which is an important indicator of the patient’s coagulation status. During the coagulation process the viscous and elastic components increase over time and the linear slope describes the dynamics of clot formation. The maximum shear viscosity provides information on clot firmness, which is dependent on blood fibrinogen level, fibrin cross-linking and platelet numbers.
In the next step, the oscillation rheometer was used for a more detailed evaluation with different coagulation activators and inhibitors using a ball coagulometer (KC 1A, ABW Medizin Technik GmbH) as reference system. The obtained data showed that the oscillation rheometer is able to measure the haemostasis status dynamically with different activators and different inhibitor concentrations. As the oscillation rheometer is too large and too expensive for the clinical routine and also too sensitive to vibrations, in the last step of this work an optimised piezo-method (PIEZ) was planned and constructed based on the PAV. The new PIEZ is also more sensitive to blood measurements than the PAV system.
In addition, to the establised activators and inhibitors of coagulation, the anti- thrombin aptamer NU172 was tested as a potential anticoagulant under static and dynamic flow conditions. Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that can fold into three-dimensional structures and bind to targeting molecules with high affinity and specificity. The effect of the aptamer can be reversed by the complementary sequence (antidote, AD). In clinical practice, thrombin aptamers such as NU172 could be used during extracorporeal circulation in combination with a reduced heparin concentration or as a substitution for patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). The PIEZ was able to detect the inhibitory effect of the aptamer and the abrogation of the inhibition by the antidote sequence. The aptamer prolongs the blood coagulation and the thrombin-mediated platelet activation is selectively inhibited (decrease of platelet activating marker, β-thromboglobulin, β-TG). Additionally reductions in ex vivo thrombosis driven by a decrease in fibrin-rich thrombus formation (decrease in maximum shear viscosity) can be observed. For the first time a continuous detection of the effect of the aptamer on coagulation is possible with the PIEZ.
The optimised PIEZ and the investigations in this work serve as basis for developments towards a point-of-care device. Further improvements (fluidic system, automated pipetting and cleaning) and studies are needed to reach the ultimative goal, the development of a point-of-care haemostasis system.