Abstract:
The topography of mountain ranges or orogens results from the interaction between two opposingly directed processes: (1) rock uplift and (2) denudation. Eventually this leads to exhumation of rocks at the Earth's surface. During the last two decades a large debate arose in the geoscience community, how tectonics and climate impact the uplift, denudation and exhumation of rocks, and whether feedbacks and interactions between tectonic and climatic processes exist during mountain building. The Olympic Mountains, situated at the Cascadia Subduction Zone (CSZ) in the north-western USA, have been introduced as a textbook flux steady-state mountain range, whereby the tectonic/accretionary influx has been balancing the denudational outflux since 14 Ma. By providing new low-temperature thermochronometric ages and results from thermo-kinematic modelling this thesis aims at better understanding the evolution of the Olympic Mountains and of mountain building processes in general. Overall 111 new thermochronometric ages have been obtained. The observed pattern of thermochronometer ages requires a spatially variable pattern of exhumation rates and the highest exhumation rates coincide with the high-elevation, central part of the orogen. This focusing of exhumation is tectonically controlled, because the Olympic Mountains are located in an orogenic syntaxis, where the subducting oceanic plate is bent, causing a lower angle of subduction below the Olympic Mountains. Furthermore, exhumation varies temporally, related either to changes in the tectonic parameters (decrease in plate convergence rate at 6 Ma) or climatic framework (increased glacial erosion due to the onset of Plio-Pleistocene glaciation at 2 - 3 Ma). Because no equivalent increase in rock uplift balances the observed increase in exhumation caused by glacial erosion, a reduction in topography on the western side of the orogen is plausible. An independent calculation of the denudational outflux out of the orogen as well as the accretionary influx into the mountain range indicates that the orogen is in flux steady-state on long timescales (i.e., 14 Myr). However, Plio-Pleistocene glaciation could have elicited perturbations of the flux steady-state on shorter timescales. A comparison of the pattern of exhumation from this thesis with published datasets of denudation and rock uplift corroborates that most permanent deformation is focused in the central part of the orogen. However, the present-day signal from GPS stations in the western part of the Olympic Mountains reflects elastic deformation of the seismic earthquake cycle, because free slip is restricted on the shallow, locked part of the subduction interface of the CSZ. The deeper part of the subduction interface displays a more complex pattern of slip and visco-plastic flow could initiate permanent deformation in the overriding crust. Ultimately that process would produce the elevated topography of the Olympic Mountains. In summary, this thesis reveals a complex and temporally non-steady history of the Olympic Mountains. Both tectonics and climate play an important role in the evolution of the orogen, and in particular Plio-Pleistocene glaciation has a profound effect on the shape of the mountain range. The combination of observations from datasets integrating on both long-term and short-term timescales might also contribute to a better understanding of the seismic hazard of the Cascadia Subduction Zone.