Abstract:
This thesis investigates the atomic structures and cell surface glycan receptor specificities of six human polyomaviruses. In healthy individuals, polyomaviruses establish usually asymptomatic chronic infections, but they may cause severe disease in immunocompromised patients. High-resolution X-ray structures of the major capsid protein VP1 alone and in complex with its specific glycan receptors allowed to analyze the molecular basis for underlying recognition events during early steps of the infection. The findings from crystallographic studies were corroborated with cell-based binding experiments using flow cytometry, interaction studies in solution by NMR spectroscopy, and infection studies in cell culture. The presented results highlight the enormous complexity of virus-glycan interactions and demonstrate that subtle differences in both the viral attachment protein and the cell-surface glycan receptor modulate binding specificities and affinities and thus, are key determinants for tissue and host tropism, viral infectivity, and pathogenesis. JC Polyomavirus (JCPyV) causes the fatal demyelinating disease Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) in immunocompromised individuals. A brain isolate of JCPyV, a genotype 1 strain, requires α2,6-linked sialic acids on the LSTc glycan for attachment to host cells, whereas a kidney isolate, a genotype 3 strain, was reported to interact with gangliosides featuring α2,3- and α2,8-linked sialic acids. Comprehensive structural and functional analyses of these two representative strains and their glycan receptor specificities show that engagement of LSTc is a prerequisite for functional receptor engagement for all seven JCPyV genotypes while the weaker-binding gangliosides are not required for infection. Interestingly, the majority of JCPyV isolates from PML patients contain distinct mutations within or in proximity to the LSTc binding site on VP1. The presented results reveal that binding of these mutant viruses to glycans is abolished or severely compromised rendering them not infectious. Thus, these viruses likely utilize a so far unknown receptor for the infectious entry and/or play alternative roles in PML pathogenesis. In order to explore potential strategies for the development of antiviral compounds against PML a fragment-based screening approach was carried out and subsequent X-ray structure analysis identified a novel compound binding site inside the hydrophobic cavity of the JCPyV VP1 pentamer. Further studies show that modifications to the five-fold pore of the VP1 pentamer result in a severe reduction of infectivity, suggesting that the pore is an important structural feature of polyomaviruses. Thus, targeting this pore may be proven to be an effective antiviral therapy. Crystal structures of VP1 from Trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated Polyomavirus (TSPyV) in complex with three different glycans reveal a sialic acid binding site that is shifted by about 18 Å from the ‘classical’ sialic acid binding sites of JCPyV and other polyomaviruses. Functional and cell-based studies confirm the importance of these novel interactions with sialic acids and suggest that glycolipids play an important role during TSPyV infection. Surprisingly, this new sialic acid binding site is also conserved in VP1 of Human Polyomavirus 12 (HPyV12), whereas the human New Jersey Polyomavirus (NJPyV) employs a third location for the recognition of an Neu5Ac-α2,3-Gal-containing receptor. A structure-based phylogenetic analysis suggests that TSPyV, HPyV12, and NJPyV share their sialic acid binding site with closely related non-human polyomaviruses providing initial clues about determinants of host specificity and evolution of these viruses. In contrast, Human Polyomavirus 6 and 7 (HPyV6 and HPyV7, respectively) carry uniquely elongated loops that cover the bulk of the outer virion surfaces, and moreover, obstruct the groove that binds sialylated glycan receptors in related viruses. Consistently, cell attachment and NMR studies further suggest that sialylated glycans are not required for cell attachment of both, HPyV6 and HPyV7. In conclusion, with its relatively high sequence homology and a conserved overall architecture, the growing Polyomaviridae family forms an excellent platform to analyze principles and molecular determinants of receptor specificity and antigenicity as well as critical factors for viral pathogenesis. A detailed understanding of the underlying molecular principles is important to establish a comprehensive toolbox, which can be used for new approaches for antiviral therapies and for the design of therapeutic gene vectors.