Abstract:
African trypanosomes induce sleeping sickness. They are transmitted
during a blood meal of the tsetse fly and appear primarily in the blood and
lymphatic system, before they enter the central nervous system. During this
2nd stage, the parasite induces a deregulation of the sleep-wake-cycles
(hence the name) and some additional phenomena like coordination
problems and disturbance of speech. It was thus a logical assumption that
trypanosomes cross the blood-brain barrier and nestle somewhere between
the brain cells. The brain, however, is completely covered by a dense barrier,
the so-called glia limitans that surrounds the brain and covers the blood
vessels, with the latter being the literal blood-brain barrier. It is known that
some immune cells are able to cross this barrier, but this needs a
sophisticated mechanism and very specific cell-cell interactions that were
never observed for trypanosomes within the mammalian host. In this work
we show that trypanosomes cannot develop inside the brain parenchyma.
Indeed, injecting parasites directly into the brain parenchyma led not to an
infection. Likewise, after an intraperitoneal infection of Wistar rats, T. brucei
brucei could be observed very rarely inside the brain parenchyma, where the
parasites were readily phagocytized by microglia. These observations make it
necessary to reconsider the common opinion that the parasites cross the
blood-brain barrier and settle inside the brain, whereas factually crossing the
blood-CSF barrier seems much more important for pathogenesis. In fact,
during prolonged infection the blood-CSF barrier was found to be leaky for
contrast agents used in magnet resonance tomography. The blood-CSF
barrier is formed by the choroid plexus, i.e. the part of the ventricles where
cerebrospinal fluid is formed. Anatomically, the ventricle system lies outside
the brain and extends to the meninges, which surround the brain next to the
glia limitans. As shown in this work by real-time PCR mapping and electron
microscopy, trypanosomes infiltrate the choroid plexus, CSF and finally the
pia mater, the innermost one of the meninges. This habitat might function as
a refuge, from where reinfections of the blood (so-called relapses) could
easily occur.
CSF itself has been proven to be toxic for trypanosomes, which would
make it necessary for them to cross the ventricle’s hostile environment as
fast as possible. In fact, trypanosomes isolated from brain show a very rapid
movement of their flagellum and swim in a much more directed manner
compared to trypanosomes found at an early infection stage in blood.
Moreover, they are significantly longer and might have evolved some other
adaptations to survive in the brain (probably endocytosis which is not
restricted to the flagellar pocket as in bloodstream forms). Furthermore, it is
demonstrated that CSF infections occur periodically, following the parasite
titer in blood. However, this process seems to be independent of antibody-
mediated immune response, as anti-trypanosomal immunoglobulin G could
not be found in CSF. For crossing the blood-CSF barrier, trypanosomes have
to overcome the plexus epithelial cells. These cells are connected by claudin-
11 containing tight junctions. It is shown in this work that trypanosomes
interact with heterologously expressed claudin-11. Finally, infiltration of
trypanosomes into other organs has been analyzed.
These results put new lights on the infection strategy and will open new
avenues for treatment and drug development.