Abstract:
Introduction. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that are observed across the lifespan. Deviant electroencephalographic (EEG) patterns of activity have been repeatedly observed in children with ADHD during resting-state conditions. However, the research in adult populations is limited and several neurophysiological models investigated in children with ADHD have not been examined in adults. Thus, the primary aim of this thesis was to investigate neurophysiological models of ADHD in an adult population, as well as to explore the relation between resting-state brain oscillations and core ADHD behaviors. The neurophysiological models investigated in this thesis were quantitative EEG (QEEG) using fixed frequency bands and individualized frequency bands based on individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF), phenotype classification, and vigilance classification.
Methods. Continuous 21-channel EEG was acquired from 48 adult participants with DSM-IV defined ADHD and 48 age and sex matched healthy control participants. To investigate QEEG differences between populations the EEG was Fourier transformed and pooled into nine regions by averaging the power at several electrode sites. For each frequency band (delta, theta, alpha, beta, theta/alpha, and theta/beta power), power analysis (absolute and relative power), and condition (eyes-closed and eyes-open), a mixed ANOVA was used to examine the effects of region and group using fixed and individualized frequency bands. To investigate the EEG phenotype model, EEG files were individually reviewed and hand scored for the presence or absence of identifiable EEG patterns including frontal slowing, low iAPF, high iAPF, beta spindling, frontal alpha, persistent eyes-open alpha, temporal alpha, and paroxysmal activity. A Pearson’s chi-squared test was used to investigate the relationship between group (ADHD, Control) and phenotype (present, absent) in a series of 2x2 cross-tabulation tables. To investigate the EEG vigilance model, eyes-closed EEG vigilance stages (O, A1, A2, A3, B1, and B2/3+) were classified using the latest version of Vigilance Algorithm Leipzig (VIGALL) macro. Differences in the amounts of vigilance stages and stage transitions in ADHD and control participants were tested using a Mann-Whitney U-test. Correlations were calculated between ADHD behavioral measures, QEEG data, and classification sub-groups.
Results. Compared to control participants, the ADHD group presented with significantly enhanced relative theta, absolute beta, theta/alpha power, and attenuated relative alpha during the eyes-closed condition, as well as significantly enhanced absolute and relative theta and attenuated relative alpha during the eyes-open condition when using fixed-frequency bands for the QEEG analysis. Despite non-significant differences in iAPF values between groups, QEEG differences were influenced using individualized frequency bands. Consequently, the ADHD group presented with significantly attenuated relative alpha and relative beta during the eyes-closed condition, as well as significantly enhanced absolute and relative theta, theta/alpha power, and attenuated relative alpha during the eyes-open condition. EEG phenotype classification revealed a significantly greater prevalence of the frontal slow and high iAPF subtypes in the ADHD group compared to the control group. EEG vigilance classification revealed that ADHD participants spent more time in lower vigilance stages (B2/3) than control participants did (ADHD = 21.2%, Control = 14.2%). No consistent relationship was found between resting-state brain oscillations and ADHD behaviors, with the exception of a weak positive correlation between iAPF and inattention.
Discussion. The present investigation confirmed and extended many of the findings reported in children with ADHD in an adult ADHD population; namely enhanced theta and attenuated alpha activity. Theta and alpha power abnormalities were further evidenced by an increased prevalence of ADHD individuals with the frontal slow (theta) and high iAPF phenotypes (alpha) and lower vigilance stage dominance (theta/alpha). The results support the hypothesis that imbalances or deviations within septal-hippocampal circuits and thalamocotical loops may lead to the disturbances of theta and alpha activity, expression of ADHD subtypes, and neurobiological deficits linked to the dopaminergic system, altered reinforcement mechanisms, and changes in vigilance and arousal. Further, these findings may account for discrepant QEEG findings within ADHD research, as EEG activity in ADHD appears to be mediated by iAPF values. Future research should investigate the role of iAPF in ADHD, as well as determine whether these neurophysiological models are reliable discriminants of ADHD or predictive of treatment response.