Abstract:
Low-temperature thermochronology owns the unique potential to derive rates of cooling, exhumation and denudation (erosional and tectonic). Furthermore it bears information about palaeotopography. This thesis comprises five low-temperature thermochronological studies conducted in the Western and Central Alps, i.e., one study in the eastern Lepontine dome and four studies along orogen-perpendicular transects through the Western and Central Alps. Main objectives of these studies are:
(1) To unravel the structural-kinematic and exhumation history of the investigated regions, and (2) to estimate the shape of palaeo-isotherms under given boundary conditions.
Three transects along tunnels (Mont Blanc, Lötschberg and Gotthard) and corresponding surface profiles were sampled in the external crystalline massifs (ECM) of the Mont Blanc, Aar and Gotthard. Sampling of the Lepontine dome was applied on a broader spatial scale. Samples were dated with the apatite and zircon fission track method (AFT and ZFT, respectively) and with the apatite (U-Th)/He method (AHe), which record the cooling of rocks between 330 and 40°C. The resulting two-dimensional sample transects along the tunnels were used to estimate the shape of palaeo-isotherms and to derive lateral and temporal differences in exhumation rates.
Thermochronological data, especially from near vertical age-elevation profiles, were used to derive the Late Neogene exhumation history of the investigated regions in the external massifs and of the Lepontine dome. The exhumation histories were compared with estimates for adjacent regions and used to investigate the impact of climatic and tectonic forcing on the evolution and exhumation of the Alpine orogen. Main conclusions from the individual studies are:
Mont Blanc transect
Thermal modeling of AFT and AHe data suggests that the Mont Blanc massif (MBM) was exhumed episodically, with rapid exhumation (2.5±0.5 km/Myr) before 6 Ma, followed by an episode of slow exhumation and again a period of fast exhumation (>1 km/Myr) after ~3 Ma. The MBM is the only ECM that experienced fast exhumation at ~6.5 Ma, possibly related to NW and minor SE directed thrusting of the MBM. I propose that the acceleration in exhumation rates of the MBM after ~3 Ma is caused by rapid valley incision related to beginning Alpine glaciation, implying that the recent relief of the MBM is a young feature.
Lötschberg transect
The data show a constant exhumation of the SW Aar massif with a rate of ~0.5 km/Myr for the last 10 Myr, increasing only in the southern area close to the Rhône-Simplon fault around 3.5 Ma to values up to 1.2 km/Myr. Acceleration of exhumation in the south is most likely triggered by increased orogen-perpendicular extension causing tectonic denudation along the south dipping Rhône-Simplon fault. Climatic forcing, especially the intensification of Alpine glaciation around 0.9 Ma has also contributed to the observed exhumation, but the magnitude of this impact can not be resolved with the data.
Gotthard transect
Thermochronological ages along the sampled Gotthard transect are very uniform, suggesting that vertical movements along distinct fault structures within and between the Aar massif (AM) and Gotthard massif (GM) can be neglected since ~15 Ma. Age-elevation profiles of ZFT and AFT data of the central AM and GM suggest fast exhumation (~1 km/Myr) around 15 Ma decreasing to a steady, uniform and moderate exhumation with a rate of ~0.5 km/Myr since ~9 Ma. Fast exhumation at ~15 Ma is probably related to continuing indentation of the Adriatic wedge, which resulted in thrusting and exhumation of the external massifs. Since ~9 Ma, the central AM and GM are maybe in a long-term exhumational steady state. Isostatic movements caused by unloading effects due to glacier retreat and/or enhanced erosion, however, led to short term fluctuations of rock uplift rates, not resolvable by our data.
Thermochronological data (ZFT, AFT) within the Gotthard tunnel show no correlation with topography, suggesting that (palaeo-) topography-induced perturbations of isotherms were small under given boundary conditions (i.e., topographic wavelength = 12 km, relief = 1.7 km, exhumation rate = 0.5 km/Myr).
A new 3D thermal model was developed and used for investigating the potential impact of different input parameters (topography, conductivities, heat production, exhumation rates) on shape of isotherms and resulting thermochronological data. Modelling reveals a strong dependence of the shape of isotherms and thermochronological ages on spatial variable heat production and exhumation rates. In the case of the Gotthard transect the influence of the topography can be neglected for the interpretation of thermochronological data, as well as in most other regions in the Alps with similar relief.
Lepontine dome
Thermochronological data of the eastern Lepontine dome was used to investigate the exhumation history and activity of the Forcola fault. The data reveal episodic exhumation of the eastern Lepontine dome with fast exhumation from ~23-16 Ma, 12-10 Ma and 5-4 Ma. The exhumation is directly linked to the onset of Miocene lateral extension and related activation of the Forcola fault. Fast exhumation between 5 and 4 Ma coincide with an increase in foreland basin deposits. Slowing down of exhumation after 4 Ma is consistent with the proposed transition from orogenic construction to orogenic destruction and related shift of active deformation into the interior of the Alpine orogen.
To sum up, all three sampled tunnel transects show no correlation of palaeo-isotherms with topography. This observation has to be interpreted in terms of the topography induced perturbation of isotherms, taking into account that obviously the present topography and relief is a very young feature (< 3 Ma). Accompanied thermal modelling additionally demonstrates that other parameters (exhumation rate, heat production), beside topography, also strongly influence the shape of near-surface isotherms. Reasons why no correlation of palaeo-isotherms with recent topography is observable are different for the tunnel transects: The relief along the Mont Blanc tunnel was less pronounced at the time given by the thermochronometer. Along the Lötschberg tunnel strong spatial differences in exhumation rates control the thermochronological age pattern, and consequently the topographic effect is not observable. Along the Gotthard tunnel ages are controlled by several spatially varying parameters (including topography, exhumation and heat production), which result in apparent flat palaeo-isotherms.
Comparing exhumation histories from the appended studies, complemented by published exhumation histories of adjacent regions, I conclude that:
(1) Comparing the exhumation rates of all ECM shows that the Messinian base level drop (~5.5 Ma) and the intensification of precipitation caused by an increase in the Atlantic Gulf Stream (~4.6 Ma) did not affect the exhumation rates of the external Alps.
(2) All ECMs, except the central Aar and Gotthard massifs, show an increase in exhumation rates at ~3 Ma. I interpret this as the result of beginning Alpine glaciation and normal faulting along orogen-parallel faults.