Abstract:
Excess salt intake increases blood pressure particularly during states of hyperinsulinism and insulin resistance. Insulin is presumably effective through activation of ENaC. Excess salt intake further decreases peripheral glucose uptake thus impairing glucose tolerance. Stimulation of both, the epithelial Na+ channel ENaC and of cellular glucose uptake involves phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI-3K) which signals through protein kinase B (Akt/PKB) and all three members of the serum and glucocorticoid inducible kinase (SGK) family of kinases SGK1, SGK2 and SGK3. All three kinases have been previously shown to modify a variety of transporters including ENaC and the glucose transporter SGLT1. To explore the role of SGK1 in salt sensitive hypertension and peripheral glucose uptake, experiments were performed in male or female SGK1 knockout mice (sgk1-/-) and their wild type littermates (sgk1+/+) which were subjected to standard diet, high-fat diet, high fructose diet or dexamethasone treatment and allowed free access to either tap water (control-salt) or 1% saline (high-salt).
Under control diet fluid intake, blood pressure, urinary flow rate and urinary Na+, K+, Cl- excretion were similar in sgk1-/- and sgk1+/+mice, plasma aldosterone concentration was however significantly higher in sgk1-/- (1.22 ± 0.18 ng/ml) than in sgk1+/+mice (0.57 ± 0.11 ng/ml). Under standard diet, high-salt-intake (1% NaCl in drinking water for 25 days) increased fluid intake, urinary flow rate and urinary Na+, K+, Cl- excretion similarly in sgk1-/- and sgk1+/+mice without significantly altering blood pressure. High-fat-diet alone (17 weeks) did not significantly alter fluid intake, urinary flow rate, urinary Na+, K+, Cl- excretion or plasma aldosterone levels, but increased plasma insulin, total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations as well as systolic blood pressure to the same extent in both genotypes. Additional high-salt-intake (1% NaCl in drinking water for 25 days) on top of high-fat-diet did not affect hyperinsulinemia nor hyperlipidemia but increased fluid intake, urinary flow rate and urinary NaCl excretion significantly more in sgk1-/- than in sgk1+/+mice. Furthermore, in animals receiving high fat diet, additional salt intake increased blood pressure only in sgk1+/+mice (132 ± 3 mmHg) but not in sgk1-/-mice (120 ± 4 mmHg). Renal SGK1 protein abundance of sgk1+/+ mice was significantly elevated following high fat diet.
During control diet, fluid intake, urinary flow rate, urinary Na+, K+ and Cl- excretion and blood pressure were similar in sgk1-/- and sgk1+/+ mice. Addition of 10 % fructose to drinking water increased fluid intake and urinary flow rate in both genotypes and did not significantly alter urinary Na+, K+ and Cl- output in neither genotype. Additional high NaCl diet (4 % NaCl) did not significantly alter fluid intake and urine volume but markedly increased urinary output of Na+ and Cl-, approaching values significantly (p < 0.05) larger in sgk1-/- than in sgk1+/+ mice. Blood pressure was similar in sgk1+/+ and sgk1-/- mice at control diet or fructose alone but increased only in sgk1+/+ mice (115 ± 1 vs. 103 ± 0.7 mmHg, p < 0.05) following combined fructose and high salt intake. Renal SGK1 transcript levels of sgk1+/+ mice were significantly elevated following fructose diet. Acute intravenous insulin infusion (during glucose clamp) caused antinatriuresis in sgk1+/+ mice, an effect significantly blunted in sgk1-/- mice. The observations reveal a pivotal role of SGK1 in insulin mediated sodium retention and the salt sensitizing hypertensive effect of high fructose intake.
Prior to dexamethasone treatment, the fluid intake, urinary flow rate, urinary Na+, K+ and Cl- excretion, plasma electrolyte and glucose concentrations as well as blood pressure were similar in sgk1-/- and sgk1+/+ mice. Dexamethasone treatment (3mg/kg, b.w. i.p. for 14 days) did not significantly alter renal Na+, K+ and Cl- excretion, but it tended to decrease renal Ca2+ excretion in sgk1+/+ mice but significantly increased renal Ca2+ excretion in sgk1-/- mice and significantly decreased renal phosphate excretion in sgk1+/+ mice. Dexamethasone treatment significantly increased fasting blood glucose concentrations in both genotypes. Dexamethasone treatment significantly increased blood pressure in sgk1+/+ mice, an effect significantly blunted in sgk1-/- mice. The subsequent replacement of the tap drinking water with saline increased the fluid intake, urinary flow rate and urinary NaCl excretion in both genotypes but increased plasma K+ concentration only in sgk1-/- mice. Saline loading increased blood pressure in both, sgk1-/- and sgk1+/+ mice and dissipated the difference between genotypes.
Intraperitoneal injection of glucose (3g/kg/body-weight) into sgk1+/+ mice transiently increased plasma glucose concentration approaching significantly higher values ([glucose]p,max) in high-salt (281 ± 39 mg/dl) than in control animals (164 ± 23 mg/dl). DOCA did not significantly modify [glucose]p,max in control sgk1+/+ mice but significantly decreased [glucose]p,max in high-salt sgk1+/+ mice, an effect reversed by spironolactone (50 mg/kg/body-weight). [glucose]p,max was in sgk1-/-mice insensitive to high-salt and significantly higher than in control sgk1+/+mice. Uptake of 3H-deoxy-glucose into skeletal muscle and fat tissue was significantly smaller in sgk1-/- mice than in sgk1+/+ mice and decreased by high-salt in sgk1+/+ mice. According to Western blotting, high-salt decreased and DOCA (35 mg/kg/body-weight) increased SGK1 protein abundance in skeletal muscle and fat tissue of sgk1+/+ mice. Transfection of HEK293 cells with active S422DSGK1 but not inactive K127NSGK stimulated phloretin-sensitive glucose uptake.
In conclusion, lack of SGK1 protects against the hypertensive effects of combined high-fat-diet/high-salt-intake or high fructose/high salt diet and mediates the salt sensitive peripheral glucose uptake. The present observations provide insight into prerequisites for the SGK1 dependent increase of blood pressure and thus may provide a clue to the increased blood pressure in those 5% of the common population carrying the SGK1 gene variant. The observations suggest that SGK1 plays a critical role in the hypertensive effect of hyperinsulinism. As a gain of function gene variant of SGK1 could simultaneously increase blood pressure and body mass index, SGK1 may indeed be one of the signalling molecules contributing to metabolic syndrome or syndrome X, a condition characterized by the coincidence of several disorders including hypertension, obesity, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. Metabolic syndrome shares several attributes of Cushing´s syndrome, but does not require increased plasma cortisol levels. Instead, the disorder may be caused by inappropriate activity of downstream signaling elements which could well include the serum and glucocorticoid inducible kinase SGK1.