Abstract:
African trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness in humans and severe epidemics in livestock. Due to antigenic variation, the course of infection is characterized by parasitic waves, which peak every 8 to 10 days; untreated, the infection is lethal. Although the decline of parasite density is contributed to the appearance of specific antibodies, immunosuppressed animals also show a regular increase and decrease in parasite numbers and this behavior is even observed in vitro, if culture media are replaced at regular intervals. Thus, beside the control of parasitaemia by the immune system of the host, cell density is also regulated by the parasite itself.
Following up reports about an increase of prostaglandin levels in serum and the cerebrospinal fluid of sleeping sickness patients [10], we have shown that trypanosomes produce PGD2, PGE2 and PGF2a from arachidonic acid. These prostaglandins led to a broad variety of different physiological effects in higher eukaryotes and their accumulation in serum coincides remarkably with symptoms observed during trypanosomiasis, such as fever, pain, immunosuppression, dysregulation of sleep/wake cycles and others. So far it is not clear why protozoa produce PGs, but it is tempting to speculate that these parasites may have adopted the formation of PGs to modify host reactions for their own benefit. In addition, we also found that PGF2a was mainly produced in fast dividing forms of the parasite such as the slender bloodstream form and the procyclic insect form and was scarcely secreted into the media, while PGD2 was mainly produced by the non dividing stumpy bloodstream form and was primarily secreted.
Here we report the effect of prostaglandin D2 on cellular growth of Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream form under in vitro culture conditions. As judged from our results, PGD2 (but not PGE2 and PGF2a) induces a programmed cell death with characteristic features of apoptosis, including maintenance of plasma membrane integrity, phosphatidylserine exposure, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, nuclear chromatin condensation, and DNA degradation.
Due to the lack of caspases in protozoa, the classical apoptosis mechanism cannot work in single cell organisms. However, published data indicate that apoptosis can occur in the complete absence of caspases. Additionally, a considerable number of investigations have been reported, showing that at least some of typical programmed cell death features like DNA fragmentation, autophagy, exposition of phosphatidylserine, decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential etc. can be observed in protozoa like Leishmania, T. cruzi, T. brucei, Tetrahymena, Blastocystis, Dictyostelium, yeast and even in bacteria.
Since PGD2 is readily metabolized in the presence of albumin, we were prompted to investigate if their metabolites rather than PGD2 itself are responsible for the observed PCD. Using LC-ESI/MS, we identified various metabolites of the D and J series. The latter derivatives, especially PGJ2 and D12PGJ2, were able to induce PCD more efficiently than PGD2. However, the stable PGD2 analog 17-phenyl trinor PGD2 led to the same phenotype as the natural PGD2, indicating that the latter induces PCD as well. Interestingly, the intracellular ROS level increased significantly under J series metabolites treatment and incubation with N-acetyl-L-cysteine or glutathione reduced ROS production and cell death significantly. In conclusion, we propose that the induction of cell death by PGD2 and J series derivatives in bloodstream form trypanosomes could be involved in cell density regulation.