Abstract:
How do we find our way around in everyday life? In real world
situations, it typically takes a considerable amount of time to get
completely lost. In most Virtual Reality (VR) applications, however,
users are quickly lost after only a few simulated turns. This happens
even though many recent VR applications are already quite compelling and
look convincing at first glance. So what is missing in those simulated
spaces? That is, what sensory information is essential for accurate,
effortless, and robust spatial orientation?
In this thesis, these and related questions were approached by
performing a series of spatial orientation experiments in various VR
setups as well as in the real world.
A first series of experiments (part II) investigated the usability of
purely visual cues, with particular focus on optic flow, for basic
navigation and spatial orientation tasks.
Participants had to execute turns, reproduce distances or perform
triangle completion tasks. Most experiments were performed in a
simulated 3D field of blobs, thus restricting navigation strategies to
path integration based on optic flow. For our experimental setup
(half-cylindrical 180x50 deg. projection screen), optic flow information alone
proved to be sufficient for untrained participants to perform turns and
reproduce distances with negligible systematic errors, irrespective of
movement velocity. Path integration by optic flow was sufficient for
homing by triangle completion, but homing distances were biased towards
the mean response. Mental spatial ability test scores correlated positively
with homing performance especially for the more complex triangle
completion tasks, suggesting that mental spatial abilities might be a
determining factor for navigation performance. In summary, visual path
integration without any vestibular or kinesthetic cues can be sufficient
for elementary navigation tasks like rotations, translations, and
triangle completion.
A second series of experiments (part III) investigated the influence and
interaction of visual and vestibular stimulus parameters for robust and
intuitive spatial orientation ("spatial updating") in real and virtual
environments. After real and/or visually simulated ego-turns,
participants were asked to accurately and quickly point towards
different previously-learned target objects that were currently not
visible. The rapid egocentric response ensured that participants could
not solve the task cognitively.
Unpredicted by the literature, visual cues alone proved sufficient for
excellent automatic spatial updating performance even without any
vestibular motion cues. Furthermore, participants were virtually unable
to ignore or suppress the visual stimulus even when explicitly asked to
do so. This indicates that the visual cues alone were even sufficient to
evoke reflex-like "obligatory spatial updating". Comparing performance
in the real environment and a photorealistic virtual replica revealed
similar performance as long as the field of view was the same.
This highlights the power and flexibility of using highly photorealistic
virtual environments for investigating human spatial orientation and
spatial cognition. It furthermore validates our VR-based experimental
paradigm, and suggests the transferability of results obtained in this
VR setup to comparable real world tasks. From a number of additional
parameters investigated, only the field of view and the availability of
landmarks had a consistent influence on spatial updating
performance. Unexpectedly, motion parameters did not show any clear
influence.
Modeling spatial orientation processes in a comprehensive framework
based on logical propositions (part IV) allowed for a deeper
understanding of the underlying mechanisms in both our experiments and
experiments from the literature. Furthermore, the logical structure of
the framework suggests novel ways of quantifying spatial updating and
"spatial presence" (which can be seen as the consistent feeling of being
in a specific spatial context, and intuitively knowing where one is with
respect to the immediate surround). In particular, it allows the
disambiguation between two complementary types of automatic spatial
updating found in our experiments: On the one hand, the well-known
"continuous spatial updating" induced by continuous movement
information. On the other hand, a novel type of discontinuous,
teleport-like "instantaneous spatial updating" that allowed participants
to quickly adopt the reference frame of a new location without any
explicit motion cues, just by presenting a novel view from a different
viewpoint. Last but not least, the framework suggested novel experiments
and experimental paradigms and was used to generate new hypotheses and
testable predictions.