Abstract:
The first scientific paper, chapter two focuses on human capital as an important determinant of living standards. Human capital is proxied with the age-heaping technique. Additionally in this article, literacy evidence is provided to cross-check the results. As an indicator of the biological standard of living, human stature is used. The chapter provides a large data set on Portuguese living standards from the early 18th to the 20th centuries. It answers the question: When and why did the Portuguese become the shortest Europeans? In order to find the answer to this question, the trend in Portuguese living standards from the 1720s until recent times is estimated with Maximum Likelihood and OLS techniques. The data shows that during the early nineteenth century average height in Portugal did not differ significantly from average height in most other European countries. But when around 1850, their anthropometric values began to climb sharply, Portugal's, however, did not. In OLS and IV panel estimations, delays in both real-wage convergence and human capital formation in Portugal are found to be the main factors hindering any improvement there in the biological standard of living.
Chapter three provides data on human capital development for seven Latin Ameri-can countries from the 17th to the 20th centuries, a geographical region and time period, where data was scarce until now. It is found that Latin America was on a path of conver-gence with Western Europe during the early 18th century. During the early 19th century, not only did numeracy development stagnate in some Latin American countries but differences among some of them increased. While numeracy rates in Argentina, Uruguay, and to a lesser extent Brazil, underwent, along with Europe, a significant increase in the late 19th century, they declined in Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia. It is found that mass immigration contributed to human capital formation in countries like Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil.
Chapter four analyzes the impact of human capital selective migration on destina-tion countries. By providing new evidence on Brazilian human capital formation in the very long run and data on the human capital endowment of Brazilian immigrants during the age of mass migration, it is shown that human capital of international migrants can induce spillover effects to overall human capital accumulation that persist until today. It is argued that human capital formation is a highly path dependent and persistent process. In a panel of Brazilian regions, increases in numeracy are significantly positively related with the increase in absolute immigrant population per state. Thus the states that received most migrants also developed most quickly in terms of human capital.
Chapter five explores the question of whether relative inequality in source and des-tination countries matters for the brain-drain phenomenon. Human capital selectivity during the 1820s to the 1900s is analyzed. In a sample of 52 source and five destination countries selective migration is found to be determined by relative anthropometric inequality in source and destination countries. The results remain robust in OLS, IV and GMM approaches. These results confirm the Roy model of migrant self-selection (Roy 1951, Borjas 1987). Moreover, the evidence shows that countries like Germany and UK experienced a small positive effect, because the less educated emigrated in larger numbers.
Chapter six provides a new data set on human capital selectivity of female migrants during the first global era. Census data for five major immigrant countries show that during the 19th century migration, women made up above 40 percent of migrants, whose experience has been somewhat neglected by scholars, so far. The determinants of female human capital selectivity are estimated. In the empirical analysis, it is shown that skill selectivity of married women are driven by relative inequality, whereas single women’s migration decision is determined by proxies for migration costs such as distance and common language. The results shed light on the female experience of the era of mass migrations.
The thesis ends with a summary and provides some directions for further research.