Abstract:
Scents and aromatic plants have historically been pivotal in shaping the socio-cultural and economic landscapes of various populations. Beyond their sensory appeal, they intertwine with trade, ritual and daily practices and societal norms. Yet, the ephemeral nature of these “invisible” phenomena presents inherent methodological challenges when attempting to reconstruct the sensory experiences of our ancestors. This thesis seeks to navigate these challenges and investigates the use, consumption and trade of aromatic substances in ancient Arabia and Egypt in the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. The research underscores the early globalization processes tied to aromatic products and the vast ancient trade networks driven by the pursuit of these fragrant plants. Beyond commerce, the thesis demonstrates that aromatics permeated daily life, playing pivotal roles in funerary practices, sanitation, preservation, and as symbols of societal distinction. To identify and reconstruct these ancient aromatics, a multi-analytical approach was adopted, harnessing techniques like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). These methodologies enabled the identification of aromatic compounds in organic residues from archaeological artefacts associated with aromatic use. The molecular findings were then contextualized with diverse historical datasets, including archaeological contexts, textual records, and botanical and palaeoenvironmental data. The case studies within the thesis unveil intricate trade networks spanning vast territories. For instance, the analysis of ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings, dating to around 1450 BCE, focused on the aromatic substances used in funerary practices of the time. This complex composition of aromatic substances not only underscores the extensive trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE but also hints at potential trade links extending to Central Europe and South-East Asia. The second study of mummification balms from ca. 600 BCE emphasized the aromatic and bioactive properties of these substances, such as anti-microbial and anti-fungal activity. The study has uncovered the use of cedar-derived compounds, indicative of cedar tar, and suggests that a dry distillation process was utilized to obtain the tar. This, in turn, sheds light on ancient production techniques for extracting aromatic substances. Further insights into past aromatic trade emerge from the case study of incense burners from the oasis of Tayma in ancient Arabia. The analysis covered samples with a span of almost 2000 years, revealing a rich history of aromatic use, from coniferous resins and plant oils in the Bronze Age to Pistacia resin in the Early Iron Age and frankincense in later periods. The spatial distribution of these substances at the oasis highlighted their multifaceted roles, ranging from ritualistic applications of certain scents in temples and graveyards to more practical uses of frankincense in homes. Methodologically, the thesis conducted novel degradation experiments to understand the transformation patterns of secondary metabolites in ancient plant residues. These experiments offered new insights into the preservation dynamics of organic compounds in ancient settings, with broader implications for identifying ancient plants. Moreover, the research identified robust archaeological biomarkers for identifying cedar species in ancient residues. In conclusion, this thesis has significantly broadened the understanding of the ancient trade and use of aromatics in ancient Egypt and Arabia. It not only identified the substances traded at specific times, but also highlights their complex roles in ancient societies and emphasizes the enduring importance of aromatic plants in shaping human history.
Biomolecular Archaeology