Abstract:
Human activity is resulting in extreme changes to Earth’s biotic and abiotic systems, and in 2019, this information is finally reaching the general public, too. While the most famous phenomenon is climate warming due to the burning of fossil fuels, land use intensification – including the expansion of managed area and the more intense use of existing agricultural fields – is the main cause of the loss of biological diversity. Land plants as primary producers are at the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems (ironically also at the foundation of our own agriculture), and understanding how their evolution has been and will be shaped by anthropogenic activity is crucial for human societies.
Past evolutionary events and potential for future evolution can be inferred from two types of variation within species: the differentiation between populations, and the diversity within populations (being the raw material for evolution), respectively. Within-species variation has also profound effects on the production, stability and resilience of plant populations, and these effects also propagate across whole plant communities and ecosystems. Studies of plant phenotypic and genetic variation in human-managed ecosystems, especially mown and grazed grasslands, have established that differentiation between close but differently managed areas can take place within a couple of generations, showing the prevalence of rapid evolution. Most recently, research on epigenetic variation – primarily focusing on DNA methylation – has gained momentum, as it became clear that it can also result in phenotypic differences and that natural plant populations are variable on this level, too. However, comprehensive studies on the effect of land use on intraspecific variation are lacking, as well as on the epigenetic variation in wild populations of non-model plants. Furthermore, studies on land use and intraspecific variation often focussed on agriculturally interesting traits, with less attention to ecologically relevant plant traits. In this thesis, I aimed to narrow these gaps by asking: (i) How much intraspecific genetic, epigenetic, and phenotypic variation is there within (diversity) and among (differentiation) wild plant populations? (ii) How is genetic, epigenetic, and phenotypic variation related to each other? (iii) What is their relationship to environmental factors, especially to land use intensity? (iv) Are there trade-offs or positive correlations between functional traits relevant in grasslands?
I worked with Plantago lanceolata, a very common grassland plant, and took advantage of the network of standardised study plots with detailed land-use information across Germany, that is hosted by the Biodiversity Exploratories research platform. In Chapter II, I focused on the analysis of epigenetic variation in field- and common-garden-collected material, and related it to genetic and phenotypic variation, environmental variables and land use intensity. In Chapter III, I analysed the phenotypic data from the same material in more detail, and explored heritable variation in the measured traits, and the relationship of their population- level means and diversities to land use intensity. In Chapter IV, I zoomed in on three traits important in grasslands; quantifying the competitive ability, response to nutrient pulses and clipping/grazing tolerance of P. lanceolata via an inventive greenhouse experiment, and examined whether there is significant variation in these traits, as well as their relationships to land use, and between each other.
I found that: (i) There is substantial epigenetic, genetic and phenotypic variation in P. lanceolata, mostly as within-population diversity, but still showing significant differentiation among populations. (ii) There was no detectable relationship between the three levels of intraspecific variation I studied. (iii) Increasing mowing intensity decreases epigenetic and phenotypic diversity, and the opposite is true for their relationship to grazing intensity; while genetic variation was unrelated to land use. (iv) Nutrient pulse response and clipping tolerance in P. lanceolata are negatively correlated, probably representing a physiological trade-off, while a positive correlation between competitive ability and clipping tolerance was most likely present because they confer benefits in the same environments. Altogether, these results show that rapid evolution associated with land use has taken place in P. lanceolata, even if this species is wind-pollinated and strictly outcrossing, which results in high levels of gene-flow and much unstructured variation. This also means that there is plenty of “raw material” for future evolution in this system, as well as the potential for finding stronger associations between these three levels of intraspecific variation and environmental variables in other species. Extending this kind of research, with more high-resolution genomic and epigenomic methods would certainly contribute to our understanding of rapid evolution in human-influenced ecosystems.